Praxiteles

Die Pummerin

The largest bell in the peal in Vienna and third largest swing bell in Europe:

http://www.stephansdom.at/dom_im_detail_pummerin.htm

Stefansdom in Vienna – full peal, Easter Sunday 2011

Bells throughout Germany

Radiant Light: Stained Glass from Canterbury Cathedral
February 25–May 18, 2014
Thomas Becket and CanterburyThe best-known English saint, Thomas Becket was born in London in 1118. He was made an archdeacon of Canterbury in 1154, appointed chancellor to King Henry II in 1155, and became the archbishop of Canterbury in 1162. Soon thereafter, Becket came into conflict with King Henry regarding the authority of the church versus that of the king. This conflict led to Becket living in exile in France for seven years before returning to Canterbury, where knights loyal to the king murdered him on December 29, 1170. In the end, the king’s attempt to silence Beckett failed. Miracles began to be recorded soon after 1171, and in 1173 Becket was declared a saint—the swiftest canonization in the history of the medieval church. His cult spread quickly, and pilgrims flocked to Canterbury. He was revered not only as a national hero but also, and primarily, as a symbol of ecclesiastical resistance to secular authority.

A fire that damaged the cathedral in 1174 presented an opportunity to redesign the eastern end. This building program included Trinity Chapel, which was completed in 1184 and housed a golden shrine for the saint’s relics, dedicated in 1220. During this period the Ancestors of Christ windows in the clerestory and those in the ambulatory (walkway) around Trinity Chapel devoted to the miracles of Thomas Becket were completed.

The Ancestors of Christ series reflects this history, as it emphasizes the lineage of Christ through priesthood rather than kingship. Moreover, ancestry and succession were important themes at Canterbury, since the cathedral represents the foothold of the Christian church in England and houses the throne (or Chair) of Saint Augustine, the first archbishop of Canterbury. The Chair, used to enthrone archbishops, was an important symbol of continuity, legitimacy, and authority. This symbolism is echoed in the monumental figures of the Ancestors of Christ, all of whom are seated.

Noah, the son of Lamech and the father of Shem, represents the ninth generation after Adam. He is depicted looking upward and animated as if in conversation, alluding to the biblical account of God speaking directly to Noah, instructing him to build the ark in anticipation of the Flood. The raised left knee further animates the figure. The trilobed arch at the top, supported by two capitals on columns, is the first such architectural framing known in stained glass and may have been appropriated from illuminated manuscripts produced at Canterbury. The wide Romanesque foliate border is comparable to the rich borders that enhanced contemporary illuminated manuscripts.

Noah was originally in the bottom half of a clerestory window in the northeast transept at Canterbury below Shem. The figure was probably moved to the Great South Window in the 1790s. The border panels, which remained in the original clerestory window, have been temporarily removed and are here reunited with the figure for the first time in more than two hundred years. The upper half of the original window with Shem is indicated in outline

Radiant Light
Stained Glass from Canterbury Cathedral
February 25–May 18, 2014
The Cloisters museum and gardens

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

This exhibition of stained glass from England’s historic Canterbury Cathedral features six Romanesque-period windows that have never left the cathedral precincts since their creation in 1178–80.

Founded in 597, Canterbury Cathedral is one of the oldest Christian structures in England. It was an important pilgrimage site in the Middle Ages—as witnessed by Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, a literary masterpiece from the fourteenth century—and is also the cathedral of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the leader of the Church of England and the Anglican Communion worldwide. Recent repairs to the stonework of the magnificent historic structure necessitated the removal of several delicate stained-glass windows of unparalleled beauty. While the restoration of the walls has been undertaken, the stained glass has also been conserved.

The windows that will be shown at The Cloisters are from the clerestory of the cathedral’s choir, east transepts, and Trinity Chapel. The six figures—Jared, Lamech, Thara, Abraham, Noah, and Phalec—were part of an original cycle of eighty-six ancestors of Christ, the most comprehensive stained-glass cycle known in art history. One complete window (Thara and Abraham), rising nearly twelve feet high, will be shown with its associated rich foliate border.

Masterpieces of Romanesque art, these imposing figures exude an aura of dignified power. The angular limbs, the form-defining drapery, and the encompassing folds of the mantles all add a sculptural quality to the majestic figures. The glass painting, which is attributed to the Methuselah Master, is striking for its fluid lines, clear forms, and brilliant use of color

Open Access
Contextualizing the Archivolted Portals of Northern Spain and Western France within the Theology and Politics of Entry

Mickey Abel

Hardback
ISBN-13:
978-1-4438-3564-0

Price:
£39.99

Cambridge Scholars Press

Open Access: Contextualizing the Archivolted Portals of Northern Spain and Western France within the Theology and Politics of Entry explores the history, development, and accrued connotations of a distinctive entry configuration comprised of a set of concentrically stepped archivolts surrounding a deliberate tympanum-free portal opening. These “archivolted” portals adorned many of the small, rural ecclesiastical structures dotting the countryside of western France and northern Spain in the twelfth century. Seeking to re-contextualize this configuration within monastic meditational practices, this book argues that the ornamented archivolts were likely composed following medieval prescriptions for the rhetorical ornamentation of poetry and employed the techniques of mnemonic recollection and imaginative visualization. Read in this light, it becomes clear that the architectural form underlying these semi-circular configurations served to open the possibilities for meaning by making the sculptural imagery physically and philosophically accessible to both the monastic community and the lay parishioner. Pointing to an Iberian heritage in which both light and space had long been manipulated in the conveyance of theological and political ideologies, Abel suggests that the portal’s architectural form grew out of a physical and social matrix characterized by pilgrimage, crusade, and processions, where the elements of motion integral to the Quadrivium sciences of Math, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music were enhanced by a proximity to and cultural interaction with the Islamic courts of Spain. It was, however, within the politics of the Peace of God movement, with its emphasis on relic processions that often encompassed all the parishes of the monastic domain, that the “archivolted” portal, with its elevated porch-like space, are shown to be the most effective

Mickey Abel is Associate Professor at the University of North Texas, USA. Her scholarly interests focus on Medieval architectural space of both France and Spain – its historical analysis, its contextual setting, its liturgical and experiential perception, and its geographical determinants. She has published in Gesta, Avista Forum, Peregrinations, and the Hispanic Research Journal. Her current work engages the mapping of spatial/geographical relationships between religious buildings, historical events, and social/economic life. Underway is a monograph on the monastic development of the canal system in western France.

Opus Sancti Lucae
eine Sammlung classischer Andachtsbilder

edited by Karl Dormanig (keeper of numesmatics at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Wien)

This edition was published in Stuttgart in 1900

This was a portfolio of images frm the classical canons of European painting and sculptor to help provide models for all sorts of painters, sculptors, mosaic workers etc.

http://bvbm1.bib-bvb.de/view/bvbmets/viewer.0.5.jsp?folder_id=0&dvs=1392077123493~471&pid=2103622&locale=it&usePid1=true&usePid2=true#

A complete scheme for the decoration of a Cathedral nave using scenes from the ecclesiastical history of England as published in the Tablet, 17 June 1899:

http://archive.thetablet.co.uk/article/17th-june-1899/34/decoration-of-the-nave

From the Journal of Sacred Architecture

Architecture as a Form of Erudition
Early Modern Priest-Architects
by Susan Klaiber, appearing in Volume 24

Disjunctions between contemporary Catholic architecture and the liturgical and representational needs of the Church often reflect conflict between the client’s sacred concerns and architecture’s secular culture, or divergence between the architectural needs of other denominations and those specific to Catholicism. But historically this was not always the case. A look at the early modern era—the period of Renaissance and Baroque architecture, and of the Counter Reformation—reveals a substantial tradition of the Church producing its own architecture, with architects drawn from the ranks of priests and other religious. Although such arrangements did not guarantee a lack of conflict between architect, clients, and donors, the practice generally met the needs of the Church in a period of rapid expansion. These priest-architects represent a unique architectural culture set somewhat apart from the rest of the early modern era, during which the architectural profession changed profoundly and secular architects sought to distance themselves from their origins in the crafts and trades through a process of professionalization. This involved, among other things, establishing a body of architectural literature, bringing architecture into the learned discourse of scientific scholarship, and founding architectural academies. Priest-architects contributed to this process in the secular world, but also within the context of religious institutions.

Sant’ Irene Church, Lecce, Italy by Francesco Grimaldi, begun 1591. Photo by Angelo Costanza

The new religious orders founded in the sixteenth century, both before and after the Council of Trent, were at the heart of the priest-architect phenomenon.1 The orders of regular clergy, such as the Jesuits,2 Barnabites,3 and Theatines,4 as well as the newly reformed branches of medieval orders, such as the Capuchins and Discalced Carmelites, frequently drew on the architectural talents of their own members when constructing new churches, houses, and other institutional buildings. To be sure, the orders also employed secular architects during this period, particularly when generous local patrons played a prominent role in decision making. Yet architects from the orders could always help evaluate plans, fill in as construction superintendents, or provide designs themselves, particularly when funding was precarious. This essay furnishes an overview of some of these men and their buildings across Europe from c. 1550 to 1750, and situates their work within the institutional culture of the religious orders.

The first generation of Jesuit, Barnabite, and Theatine architects, active from the mid-sixteenth century through the early decades of the seventeenth century, generally had obtained their architectural training outside the order. These men with a background as craftsmen, such as the Jesuit Giuseppe Valeriano (1542 – 1596) who originally trained and worked as a painter, generally joined the new orders later in life.5 The Theatine Francesco Grimaldi (1543 – 1613) also entered the order late, at age thirty-one, but had already been ordained a priest prior to joining the Theatines.6 Grimaldi provided the first plans for Sant’Andrea della Valle in Rome, designed several churches in Naples, and the Theatines’ Sant’Irene in Lecce (1588). In contrast to Valeriano and Grimaldi, Lorenzo Binago (1554 – 1629), the first prominent Barnabite architect, joined the order while young, at age eighteen. Yet Binago also seems to have had previous training in drawing or architecture, since his earliest known drawing—made a year after entering the order—is already quite accomplished.7

These priest-architects began to establish architectural identities for their religious communities as the orders moved from the temporary quarters of their earliest years to create permanent architectural presences in rapidly expanding networks of churches and houses across Italy and throughout Europe. Such early churches were often simple, since the immediate functional needs during expansion and financial constraints overrode wishes for more elaborate designs.

Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, black chalk drawing of Orazio Grassi’s Sant’ Ignazio Church under construction, Rome. Photo: © The Trustees of the British Museum

After this first generation, the Jesuit Orazio Grassi8 (1583 – 1654) marks the transition to the later type of institutionalized scholarly priest-architects. By the early seventeenth century, the new orders had established themselves as centers of learning and education as well as patrons of architecture, constructing not only churches and convents, but also colleges and seminaries, hospitals, libraries, and other institutional buildings. The traits manifested in Grassi’s career came to characterize most priest-architects over the next century. These men were usually trained in mathematics through the educational programs of the orders—mathematics in its early modern sense of quantifiable crafts and activities such as mathematical astronomy, perspective, and architecture (“mixed mathematics”), in addition to the developing field of what is now known as pure mathematics.9 Thus equipped, the priest-mathematicians pursued vocations as teachers and scholars within their orders, and they participated as architects or consultants in many of their orders’ building projects.

Grassi’s career in the broad field of seventeenth-century mathematics unfolded primarily at the Collegio Romano, where he briefly considered establishing a Jesuit architectural school, but became most famous for his clashes with Galileo Galilei regarding comets.10 Grassi designed several buildings for the Jesuits, foremost Sant’Ignazio in Rome (begun 1626), the church of the Collegio Romano, but also at least portions of other buildings for the order, such as San Vigilio, Siena, and Sant’Ignazio (now Saint-Charles-Borromé) in Bastia on Corsica.11 Although Sant’Ignazio was not completed entirely to Grassi’s plans, it stands as a monument to the architectural-mathematical scholarship and practical skills promoted in the Jesuit curriculum at the Society’s colleges.

Under Grassi, the Jesuit order institutionalized the connection between architecture and mathematics, appointing the professor of mathematics at the Collegio Romano the order’s consiliarus aedificiorum. The consiliarus reviewed all plans for new architectural projects within the order, with his approval necessary before projects could proceed. The consiliarus commented on the plans, and when necessary, made suggestions for improvements—these were generally practical and economic in nature, rather than aesthetic. The plans were submitted in duplicate to the consiliarus, with one copy returned to the building site, and the other retained for the order’s archives; these plans are now all preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris.12

In addition to architectural skills cultivated for the order’s own immediate needs, the Jesuit colleges throughout Europe often instructed their secular pupils in military architecture, such as the art of building fortifications. This met a future need for young men planning to pursue a military career, and was therefore included within their mathematics curriculum.13

Similar architectural needs, educational programs, and—sometimes—institutional mechanisms led to similar architectural cultures in other early modern religious orders, particularly those associated with the Counter Reformation. For these orders, architecture fit into a larger vision of the scholarship that priests would normally pursue, and indeed could be considered a kind of apostolate for the order. In this sense, when a priest designed churches for his order—or other buildings for its patrons, thereby also supporting the order indirectly—he was doing work that was part of his vocation as a priest.14

The Theatine Guarino Guarini (1624 – 1683) is perhaps the best-known of these architects, joining the ranks of major secular architects such as Bernini and Borromini in histories of Baroque architecture. Yet precisely this success has obscured his origins within the architectural culture of early modern religious orders. His early works in Messina and Modena, while accomplished and innovative in some respects, do not yet herald the radically inventive designs—particularly daring open-work domes—that he produced at the Savoy court in Turin, such as the Theatines’ ducal chapel of San Lorenzo (1670 – 1680) or the Chapel of the Holy Shroud (1667 – 1694) between the ducal palace and the cathedral. Guarini even officiated at the inaugural mass in San Lorenzo on May 12, 1680, although considering the dozens of early modern priest-architects, this was perhaps not quite the unique occurrence Rudolf Wittkower imagined.15

San Lorenzo, Turin, by Guarino Guarini, 1670-80. Photo: SXC

Guarini was so successful as a court architect for the Savoy that he seems to have had various assistants supporting him toward the end of his career. Documents mention a Theatine lay brother assigned to help him, although the records do not specify if this help was specifically architectural, or simply general logistic assistance.16 For his two large secular projects for the Prince of Carignano, the Palazzo Carignano and the Castello of Racconigi, the surviving drawings show at least two or three other draftsmen besides Guarini. These draftsmen seem to have been secular architects hired by the patron to assist the priest busy with numerous publication projects as well as other duties beyond the building site.17

After publishing philosophy and geometry textbooks, and smaller works on astronomy, fortifications, and construction measurement, Guarini finally seems to have turned to writing his architectural treathttpise during the last five or six years of his life. Indeed, right up to the end of his life, Guarini remained a scholar: he died in Milan apparently while there supervising the publication of his two-volume astronomy treatise Caelestis Mathematicae (Milan: Ludovico Monti, 1683). Had he lived longer, he may well have written the theology textbook, a Cursum scholasticae theologia, which he had intended to write at least since his time in Paris in the 1660s.18 For Guarini and many other early modern priest-architects, architecture and scholarship were not separate activities pursued in addition to the priesthood, but rather integral parts of their vocations. Richard Pommer best expressed this in relation to Guarini when he remarked, “for him, architecture was a form of erudition.”19

Active priest-architects were not confined to Italy, but also based in Spain, France, the German regions, and the Southern Low Countries. Through the international ministries and missions of their orders, they often traveled extensively, spreading as well as gathering architectural ideas all along the way.

The Spanish Cistercian Juan Bautista Caramuel y Lobkowitz (1606 – 1682) was a polymath who published works in diverse disciplines and traveled extensively throughout Europe; he became bishop of Vigevano in Lombardy in 1673.20 Like Grassi and Guarini, Caramuel also approached architecture as a branch of mathematics, and he is best known for his architectural theory, first included in his mathematics treatise Mathesis Biceps (2 vols., Campagna, 1670), and then published separately as Architectura civil, recta y obliqua (Vigevano, 1678). The latter treatise is remarkable for its system of “oblique architecture,” which incorporated adjustments to architectural elements such as staircase balusters or colonnades on curved plans in order to avoid awkward transitions between rectilinear and oblique elements, or to compensate for other irregular optical effects.

Juan Bautista Caramuel’s treatise Architectura civil, recta y obliqua, 1678, Part IV, Plate VI. Photo: Getty Research Library / Internet Archive

Caramuel’s single built work is the façade of the cathedral of Sant’Ambrogio in Vigevano, Italy, completed in 1680, which finished off the fourth side of the city’s Piazza Ducale designed by Bramante in 1492-94. The façade’s idiosyncratic design with four bays rather than three or five masks the church’s skewed orientation to the square and thus breathes the spirit of the architectura obliqua system. The solution was perhaps inspired by Guarini’s façade for Santissima Annunziata in Messina of twenty years earlier, but Caramuel also looked to a Roman model: the portal on the far left leads simply to a street as do the lateral portals at Pietro da Cortona’s Santa Maria della Pace in Rome (1656 – 1657), while the three other portals lead to the three aisles of the church.

The title page of François Aguilon’s treatise on optics. Photo: © The Trustees of the British Museum

The Belgian Jesuit François Aguilon (1567 – 1617) was known chiefly for his scientific work in optics, Opticorum libri sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles (Antwerp, 1613) with its frontispiece and six illustrations by Peter Paul Rubens. He directed the Jesuit college in Antwerp with its famous mathematical studies, and he also designed the splendid Jesuit church in Antwerp (1615 – 1621), St. Ignatius (now St. Charles Borromeo), together with the lay brother Pieter Huyssens (1577 – 1637) who took over the project after his death. Rubens also collaborated with Aguilon on this project, not only with his high altarpiece of the Deposition and thirty-nine ceiling paintings installed in the side aisles (now lost), but also contributing the design for various sculptural elements on the façade.

Facade of Jesuit Church, Antwerp (completed 1621), print of 1678. Photo: © The Trustees of the British Museum

The church suffered a devastating fire in 1718 which destroyed much of the interior, but one can still appreciate Aguilon’s original design in the rich façade and the barrel-vaulted nave with superimposed arcades, where the upper gallery was accessible to students from the adjacent college. The interest in optics at the Antwerp college probably also stood behind the innovative indirect lighting effects in the church’s Houtappel chapel, designed by Huyssens and perhaps inspired by Bernini’s early work at Santa Bibiana in Rome.21

Many early modern priest-architects remain relatively unknown even today, with their accomplishments often obscured by misattributions to more famous secular architects. The pilgrimage chapel at Telgte (1654 – 1657) in northwest Germany furnishes an example of such an oversight. The chapel was commissioned by the Prince-Bishop of Münster, Christoph Bernhard von Galen, soon after he established the Telgte pilgrimage in 1651, with its focus on the sculpted Gnadenbild (a devotional Pietà) of c. 1370. Long attributed to the Danish architect Peter Pictorius the Elder active in Münster, twenty years ago the historian Helmut Lahrkamp uncovered evidence reattributing the original octagonal chapel to the Observant Franciscan Pater Jodokus Lücke (ordained 1642, died 1681).22 Lücke also designed portions of the Franciscan churches in nearby Hamm and Warendorf, and held administrative positions in the order, serving several times as the provincial superior.23 Interestingly, Lücke’s design for Telgte was preferred to that of another religious architect, the Franciscan lay brother Gerhard Mahler.

Although gradually supplanted by academically trained priest-architects, lay brothers in the various religious orders continued to be active as architects and construction superintendents into the eighteenth century, although most of these men—lacking the formal education of priests—came from families already engaged in the building trades or other crafts. A few of these lay brother-architects achieved particular distinction.

The son of a painter in Lyon, the Jesuit lay brother Étienne Martellange24 (1569 – 1641) provided designs for numerous Jesuit churches in France, such as the Jesuit Novitiate church in Paris (begun 1630), closely modeled on Giacomo della Porta’s Santa Maria ai Monti in Rome. Known also for his drawings of French cities and landscapes, Martellange entered the Jesuit novitiate in Avignon in 1590, and is referred to as an architect beginning around 1603 when he took his vows as a Jesuit frère coadjuteur temporel.

Étienne Martellange, Jesuit novitiate church, Paris (begun 1630), print by J. Marot, 1652-61. Photo: © The Trustees of the British Museum

The Jesuit lay brother Andrea Pozzo (1642 – 1709) worked primarily as a painter, particularly noted for his illusionistic quadratura frescoes with architectural elements, as in Sant’Ignazio, Rome, and for his altars. But he also was a prolific architect, designing churches in Dubrovnik, Ljubljana, Trent, and Montepulciano, among others. Perhaps inspired by the erudite publications of his more learned priest colleagues, Pozzo published his influential treatise Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum (2 vols., Rome, 1693 – 1700) in a parallel Latin–Italian edition that was widely translated in similar bilingual editions, thus addressing both craftsmen and scholars. His younger brother Giuseppe Pozzo worked as a lay brother artist of the Discalced Carmelite order in various churches in Venice.25

Preparatory drawing for the Sant’ Ignazio vault fresco, by Andrea Pozzo, 1685-90. Photo: Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington.

Caspar Moosbrugger (1656 – 1723) was a Benedictine lay brother from a family active in the building trades in the Vorarlberg region around Bregenz in western Austria, one of the dynasties comprising the so-called Vorarlberger school of architects and craftsmen. Moosbrugger trained and then worked as a stonemason until entering the order in 1682, around which time he began taking on the responsibilities of an architect. His architectural knowledge is preserved in the Auer Lehrgang, a manuscript treatise and pattern book used by the Vorarlberg builders’ guild. Moosbrugger designed numerous churches and monasteries in Switzerland, the most famous of which is the Benedictine Abbey Church of Einsiedeln where he spent most of his life.26

Façade of the Benedictine Abbey Church of Einsiedeln, by Caspar Moosbrugger, begun 1721. Photo by Susan Klaiber

Collectively, priest-architects, with their lay brother colleagues, shaped substantial portions of the built environment in early modern cities across Europe. The priest-architect phenomenon flourished during a specific historical moment lasting perhaps three centuries. With the advent of modern professional training in architecture in academies and then schools like the French École des Beaux-Arts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the orders’ practical and theoretical training programs for their members became superfluous. The various suppressions of the orders at the end of the eighteenth century also contributed to the demise of this architectural culture.

Although the nineteenth and twentieth centuries still produced some priest-architects, these were increasingly trained in mainstream secular schools of architecture, no longer within the Church’s educational programs. Some exceptions to this trend were priest-architects working in the mission field, where a general scarcity of formally trained architects prevailed—much as during the building boom of the Counter Reformation. The British Anglican priest William Grey (1819 – 1872) designed or remodelled eleven churches in Newfoundland according to the principles of Ecclesiology, and also trained Canadian Anglican seminary students in architecture.27 Other contemporary priest-architects, as with the early Jesuits, came from families active in architecture, such as the Dutch Benedictine monk Dom Hans van der Laan (1904 – 1991). Van der Laan studied architecture at the Technische Universiteit Delft and built austerely meditative churches and Benedictine abbeys in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Sweden.28 For all these men, creating sacred architecture comprised a facet of their religious vocation, helping them to serve the Church and their communities with buildings to further spiritual goals.

Susan Klaiber (Ph.D., FAAR) is an architectural historian based in Winterthur, Switzerland, whose work focuses on Baroque architecture in Italy, France, and Germany. Her publications include the book Guarino Guarini (Umberto Allemandi & C.), co-edited with G. Dardanello and H. A. Millon. She serves on the governing committee of the European Architectural History Network, and was founding editor of the Network’s EAHN Newsletter (2007-2010). Website: http://www.susanklaiber.wordpress.com.

(Endnotes)
This essay draws on material presented in my two forthcoming articles: “Architecture and Mathematics in Early Modern Religious Orders,” in A. Gerbino, ed., Geometrical Objects: Architecture and the Mathematical Sciences 1400-1800, (in press); and “Architectural Education and Early Modern Religious Orders,” Cambridge World History of Religious Architecture, Richard Etlin, general editor, 3 vols., New York: Cambridge University Press (publication scheduled for 2013 / 2014).
The title of this article draws on a comment by Richard Pommer, cited at note 19 below.
1. See Rudolf Wittkower, Art and Architecture in Italy 1600-1750, Pelican History of Art, 6th ed., rev. by Joseph Connors and Jennifer Montagu (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 1: 2-3, 15-16, 80-81, 84-87; Richard Bösel, “L’architettura dei nuovi ordini religiosi,” in Storia dell’architettura italiana: Il Seicento, ed. Aurora Scotti (Milan: Electa, 2003), 1:48-69.
2. Jean Vallery-Radot, Le recueil de plans d’édifices de la Campagnie de Jésus conservé à la Bibliothèque nationale de Paris (Rome: Institutum Historicum S. I., 1960);
Richard Bösel, Jesuitenarchitektur in Italien (1540 – 1773). Teil 1, Die Baudenkmäler der römischen und der neapolitanischen Ordensprovinz, 2 vols. (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1986), and Richard Bösel and Herbert Karner, Jesuitenarchitektur in Italien. Teil 2., Die Baudenkmäler der mailändischen Ordensprovinz (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2007).
3. Jörg Stabenow, Die Architektur der Barnabiten: Raumkonzept und Identität in den Kirchenbauten eines Ordens der Gegenreformation 1600-1630 (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2011).
4. Because the early modern Theatine order lacked a central repository for architectural designs, no comprehensive summary of Theatine architectural practice or production has yet been written. For aspects, see: Silvana Savarese, Francesco Grimaldi e l’architettura della Controriforma a Napoli (Rome: Officina, 1986); Susan Klaiber, “Guarino Guarini’s Theatine Architecture” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 1993), 9-38; and Fulvio Lenzo, Architettura e antichità a Napoli dal XV al XVIII secolo: le colonne del Tempio dei Dioscuri e la Chiesa di San Paolo Maggiore (Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 2011).
5. Pietro Pirri, Giuseppe Valeriano S.I., architetto e pittore, 1542-1596, ed. R. Colombo (Rome: Institutum Historicum S.J., 1970); and R. Bösel, “Giuseppe Valeriano,” in The Dictionary of Art, ed. J. Turner (London: Grove, 1996), 31: 819-820.
6. Francesco Andreu, Oppidani illustri: Francesco Grimaldi (Matera: Arti Grafiche E. Liantonio, 1984), 23.
7. Stabenow, 34.
8. On Grassi, see Richard Bösel, Orazio Grassi: architetto e matematico gesuita : un album conservato nell’Archivio della Pontificia Università gregoriana a Roma (Roma: Argos, 2004).
9. Antonella Romano, La contre-réforme mathématique. Constitution et diffusion d’une culture mathématique jésuite á la Renaissance (1540-1640) (Rome: École française de Rome, 1999); Gary I. Brown, “The Evolution of the Term ‘Mixed Mathematics,’” Journal of the History of Ideas 52, no. 1 (1991): 81-102; and my two forthcoming articles cited above, Klaiber, “Architecture and Mathematics in Early Modern Religious Orders;” and Klaiber, “Architectural Education and Early Modern Religious Orders.”
10. Bösel, Grassi, 29.
11. Bösel, Grassi, 31-33.
12. Vallery-Radot, Recueil, 8*-11*. The several volumes of plans in Paris may now be consulted online through the Gallica digitization project: http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?ArianeWireIndex=index&lang=EN&q=Recueil+…+contenant+tous+les+Plans+originaux+des+Maisons&p=1&f_typedoc=images (consulted May 29, 2013).
13. François de Dainville, “L’enseignement scientifique dans les collèges des jésuites,” in Enseignement et diffusion des sciences en France au XVIIIe siècle, ed. René Taton (Paris: Hermann, 1964), 52; Denis De Lucca, Jesuits and Fortifications: The Contribution of the Jesuits to Military Architecture in the Baroque Age (Leiden: Brill, 2012).
14. See Klaiber, “Architectural Education and Early Modern Religious Orders” (forthcoming, cited above).
15. Rudolf Wittkower, “Guarini the Man,” in Studies in the Italian Baroque (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975), 178-186.
16. Archivio di Stato, Turin, Sezione Corte, Lettere di particolari, “V”, mazzo 40, letter of the Theatine Father General Placido Visconti, dated May 22, 1677.
17. On the other hands in these drawings, see Augusta Lange, “Disegni e documenti di Guarino Guarini,” in V. Viale, ed., Guarino Guarini e l’internazionalità del barocco (Turin: Accademia delle scienze, 1970), I: 100-102.
18. Giuseppe Silos, Historiarum Clericorum Regularium (Palermo: Petri de Insula, 1666), III: 572.
19. Richard Pommer, Eighteenth-Century Architecture in Piedmont (New York: New York University Press, 1967), 7.
20. Augusto De Ferrari and Werner Oechslin, “Caramuel Lobkowicz, Juan,” in Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (Rome: Istituto della enciclopedia italiana, 1976), 19: 621-626, also available online: http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/juan-caramuel-lobkowicz_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/ (consulted May 29, 2013); for an overview of his architectural activity in English, see also Werner Oechslin, “Caramuel de Lobkowitz, Juan,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, ed. Adolf K. Placzek (New York: Free Press, 1982), 1: 380-383.
21. The exact division of labor and attribution of the various church components in Antwerp remain slightly unclear. On Aguilon, see August Ziggelaar, François de Aguilón S. J. (1567 – 1617): Scientist and Architect (Rome: Institutum Historicum S. I., 1983), and the recent overview in Joris Snaet and Krista de Jonge, “The Architecture of the Jesuits in the Southern Low Countries: A State of the Art,” in La arquitectura jesuìtìca, ed. María Isabel Alvaro Zamora, Javier Ibáñez Fernández, and Jesús Fermín Criado Mainar (Zaragoza: Inst. “Fernando el Catòlico”, 2012), 239-276, esp. 273 on the Houtappel chapel in the Antwerp church; also available online: http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/31/96/08snaetdejonge.pdf (consulted May 29, 2013).
22. Helmut Lahrkamp, “Beiträge zur Hofhaltung des Fürstbischofs Christoph Bernhard von Galen – mit einem Exkurs über Peter Pictorius d. Ä.” Westfalen 71 (1993): 31-71. The ornaments atop the exterior columns and the lantern were apparently added later: for the engraving of Pater Lücke’s original chapel in a 1660 Jesuit devotional book held by the university library in Münster, see http://sammlungen.ulb.uni-muenster.de/hd/content/pageview/834482 (consulted May 30, 2013). I thank Martin Raspe for drawing my attention to Lahrkamp’s work.
23. Lahrkamp, “Beiträge zur Hofhaltung”: 54.
24. This follows the recent study on Martellange by Adriana Sénard, “Étienne Martellange: un architecte de la Compagnie de Jésus en France au XVIIe siècle,” in La arquitectura jesuìtìca, ed. María Isabel Alvaro Zamora, Javier Ibáñez Fernández, and Jesús Fermín Criado Mainar (Zaragoza : Inst. “Fernando el Catòlico”, 2012), 213-237; also available online: http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/31/96/07senard.pdf (consulted May 30, 2013).
25. Vittorio De Feo and Valentino Martinelli, eds. Andrea Pozzo (Milan: Electa, 1996); Alberta Battisti, ed., Andrea Pozzo (Milan: Luni, 1996); Richard Bösel and Lydia Salviucci Insolera, eds., Artifizi della Metafora: saggi su Andrea Pozzo (Rome: Artemide, 2011).
26. On Moosbrugger, see Werner Oechslin, “Moosbrugger, Caspar,” in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Architects, ed. Adolf K. Placzek (New York: Free Press, 1982), 3: 231-233; and Hardy Happle and Werner Oechslin, editors, Auer Lehrgang, 3 vols. (Zurich and Bregenz: Vorarlberger Landesmuseum, 2008-2011). Online resource: Moosbrugger in the Einsiedeln Professbuch, with images of his drawings for the abbey church http://www.klosterarchiv.ch/e-archiv_professbuch_liste.php?id=1374 (consulted November 30, 2012).
27. On Grey, see: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/william-grey (consulted May 29, 2013). For Grey’s sole surviving church, St. James Anglican Church in Battle Harbour, Newfoundland, and Labrador, see the entry on the Canada’s Historic Places website: http://www.historicplaces.ca/en/rep-reg/place-lieu.aspx?id=2137 (consulted 29 May 2013). I learned of Grey through a paper given at the European Architectural History Network’s Second International Meeting in Brussels, May 31-June 2, 2012, “Periodicals, Patrons, and Practitioners: The Transmission of Ecclesiological Gothic to the Atlantic Colonies of British North America” (Peter Coffman, Carleton University, Ottawa).
28. On van der Laan, see the website of the Van Der Laan Foundation: http://www.vanderlaanstichting.nl/en/index.php (consulted May 30, 2013) with rich photographic and bibliographic resources.